The Tripitaka (called Tipitaka in Pali) is the earliest collection of buddhist writings. Initially, they were composed orally, but were written down by the third century bce. The word means "the three baskets," (tri=three, pitaka=baskets), and refers to the way the texts were first recorded. The early writing material was long, narrow leaves, which were sewn together on one side. Bunches of these were then stored in baskets. This is a large collection, running 45 volumes in one modern edition.
The baskets are divided by subject matter. The first basket is the Discipline Basket (Vinaya Pitaka), which set out the rules and guidelines for living the monastic life of the sangha. It focuses first on the 227 regulations for monks (Bhikkhus), which concern everything from basic morality to robe-making, the additional rules for the nuns (Bhikkhunis), and then on guidelines for interaction between the monks and nuns and the laity. The second basket is the Discourse Basket (Sutra Pitaka) and it contains records of the Buddha's teachings and sermons. These discourses of the Buddha present matters of theology and moral behavior for all buddhists. The third basket is that of the Special Teachings (Abhidharma Pitaka). It essentially is a miscellaneous collection of short writings containing everything from songs and poetry to stories of the Buddha and his previous lives. One text, the Dharmapada, contains simple discussions of key buddhist concepts based on the Buddha's daily life. To read parts of the Dharmapada, go here. (I recommend reading the section on the "The Monk," "Craving," or "The Enlightened One.")
The Tripitaka is the sole canonical text in Theravada Buddhism. It has been interpreted throughout the centuries, however, by numerous commentaries. For a discussion of the Tripitaka in Theravada and some examples of the texts, browse here. (This site contains extensive details about the Tripitaka, many of which are interesting but not necessarily needed at an introductory level.)
The Sutras
While Mahayana Buddhism reveres the Tripitaka as a holy text, they add to it a total of 2184 sacred writings. Most of these writings go under the name of Sutra. The Sutras were put into writing between the second century bce and the second century ce, during the time the split between Theravada and Mahayana developed. Since there are so many new works, different divisions of Mahayana develop in different directions depending on which Sutras they use and emphasize. Just a few, however, are key to much of Mahayana development and thought.
The most important Sutra is the Lotus Sutra. It depicts a sermon by the Buddha to the assembled Bodhisattvas, buddhas and other beings in which he teaches the basis of Mahayana Buddhism. He emphasizes the goal of becoming a Bodhisattva, the notion of realizing one's own buddha-nature, and so on. The Lotus Sutra is used extensively in many forms of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, and is even the primary text for one strand of Mahayana, Nicheren Buddhism.
The Heart Sutra also plays an important role in Buddhism. It is short, only a page or two long, but it sets out the character of nirvana, Emptiness, and Ultimate Reality as perceived within Mahayana. In it, the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara describes the nature of the five skandhas: body (=form), feelings, senses, tendencies, and consciousness. It is often chanted and discussed, especially in Vajrayana. To read the Heart Sutra, go here or here.
A Sutra called "Land of Bliss" describes the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha. It relates the vow of the buddha that enabled him to create the Land, and discussed what people must do to enter the Pure Land.
The Sutras of the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajna-paramita) provides the basis for Mahayana's understanding of the key notion of "Emptiness." Nagarjuna used this text as a basis for his thought and writings. The Heart Sutra is part of this larger text.
Nagarjuna
Nagarjuna was an early buddhist thinker whose importance is often overlooked. He was the first writer to systematize key concepts of Buddhism. Although he founded a Mahayana school, the Madhyamika ("Middle Way"), his importance comes from his thought. In his Memorial Verses on the Middle Way, Nagarjuna interprets the Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom. His central argument elaborates the concepts of Emptiness and impermanence. He shows that each "thing" exists only relation to other "things." Since each thing changes, its relationship to other things changes. These changes reveal that nothing stays the same, nothing is permanent or fixed. Whereas Theravada believed this as the nature of human beings, Nagarjuna made it clear that this applied to all the cosmos. Thus nothing in the cosmos was fixed or permanent other than the existence of the cosmos itself. The metphorical term he used to describe this notion was "Emptiness" or "Void." For a sample of Nagarjuna's comments on "faith," go here; for other citations of Nagarjuna, go here.
Vajrayana draws upon the literature of the other forms of Buddhism. It reveres the Tripitaka, which was perhaps the first buddhist text to be translated into Tibetan. It also draws extensively upon the Mahayana Sutras, especially those concerning Wisdom, as well as the writings of Nagarjuna and his followers. In addition, Vajrayana uses a number of Tantric texts, as well as commentaries on all of them. The Tibetan monks also wrote many works of their own. Two texts are fairly well known in the West. The first is the Great Stages of Enlightenment, by Tsongkhapa, which deals with the importance of ethical behavior and control of the mind as prerequisites to engaging in tantric practice. The second is the Tibetan Book of the Dead. It sets out the stages a person goes through while dying, at death, while dead, and then as they are being prepared for rebirth and then finally rebirth itself. During each of these stages, appropriate texts are read to the deceased. If the deceased hears these and understands their true meaning, then they can achieve nirvana without being reborn.
Buddhism developed initially in India as a reaction against Hinduism in the fifth century bce. It drew many of its beliefs from that religious context. Two key Hindu concepts that Buddhism uses are samsara and karma. Like Hinduism, Buddhism holds that life is a series of rebirths and "redeaths" in a continuous cycle and that a person's actions during a life produce karma that determines the place and form of the next life (and sometimes even succeeding lives). In Buddhism, samsara is often symbolized by the Wheel of Life.
Samsara's Real Estate and the Possible Forms of Life
In all forms of Buddhism, the realm of samsara is divided into three main levels: heaven, earth and hell. Both heaven and hell have a number of levels. Inhabiting these realms, are creatures in six different "states of existence" (or, six types of creatures). These are: gods, humans, asura (=ogres or titans), animals, hungry ghost and demons. Beings in one of the first three states are there because of their store of good karma. Beings in one of the last three states are there because of their store of bad karma. Gods exist in the higher heavens, asuras in the lower heavens and humans on earth. Animals dwell on earth, the hungry ghosts (so-called because they have large stomachs but tiny mouths) live between earth and hell, and the demons of course reside in hell.
One aspect of the Hindu world that Buddhism rejected was the caste system; in Buddhism all humans are essentially equal. Samsara therefore rotates souls through the different states of being rather than through different levels of the caste system.
The Human Problem and the Solution
The Buddha discussed the human problem and its solution together. The short statement that lays out these out--The Four Noble Truths--forms the main foundation of Buddhism that differentiates it from all other religions.
The first two Truths describe the problem:
- Truth #1. All is suffering (dukkha).
- Truth #2. Suffering comes from desire.
All life is suffering and suffering comes from desire, because desire is so rarely fulfilled. It is important to understand these two statements together. By itself, "suffering" could refer to all kinds of suffering, such as suffering inflicted upon us by circumstances or by other people. The former could include suffering of sickness, age, accidents, while the latter could include malicious injury of a physical or emotional nature. But the Buddha makes it clear that although these are obvious forms of suffering, the most insidious forms of suffering are caused by desire, specifially, unfulfilled desire. Thus, although illness is suffering in-and-of-itself, it is suffering even more so because one desires to be well. While losing a spouse or lover is suffering by itself, it is compounded by the desire for them to be near.
Once the problem is set up in this manner, the solution becomes apparent:
- Truth #3. If a person stops desiring, then they stop suffering.
- Truth #4. Desiring can be stopped by following the Noble Eightfold Path.
The third Noble Truth is a logical deduction from the first two. Given the link between suffering and desire, the way to stop suffering is to stop desiring. But how to accomplish this? Here is the Buddha's contribution: the Noble Eight-Fold Path with its ultimate goal of nirvana. The Path's eight steps fall into three groups. First, a person must believe and intend the right things. Second, they must carry out those intentions in the community and society in which they live. Third, they must then turn their minds to higher things and practice meditation on the ultimate nature of reality. Finally, they perceive ultimate reality and know the correct belief concerning all things.
Nirvana: The Goal of the Noble Eight-fold Path
Nirvana means "liberation" and refers to liberation from the realm of samsara. In many ways, the buddhist goal of Nirvana is similar to the Hindu goal of moksha. It is the way out of samsara--out of the cycle of rebirth and redeath. It is accomplished through meditation, and it is usually done by removing oneself from the regular activities of life. However, there is a key difference. Whereas Hinduism described moksha as the realization of the unity of the individual (atman) and the cosmic essence (Brahman), Buddhism sees nirvana as the extingushing of desire and hence the elimination of suffering. In Theravada Buddhism, this is the only religious goal and the person who experiences it is called an arhat. The single aim of Theravada is to help people become arhats and thus release them from samsara at their death. One then goes to a state of being outside (or beyond) the realm of samsara, that is, a state of being that has no form and no place.
Only a human being can attain nirvana. No other state of being, including that of god, can do so. While this is understandable for the three "evil" states of being, this is surprising for the gods. One explanation is that the gods live in such a state of bliss that they cannot conceive of suffering, and thus cannot realize the truth of the Four Noble Truths. Thus they must die and be reborn in human form to attain liberation.
More on the Human Problem: Anatman and Anitya
The foundational idea of suffering, which is called dukkha in Buddhism, has two additional components that need to be discussed. If suffering refers to the character of a person's life within samsara, then first component--anatman--refers to an individual's life, while the second--anitya--refers to the character of samsara.
Anatman literally means "no soul." It refers to the buddhist belief that no living being has a permanent soul. Instead, humans, and other beings, are made up of fiveskandhas which come together at birth and fall apart at death. They are not reborn together again. These five skandhas are: the body, the feelings or emotions, the perceptions or thoughts, the intentions amd the consciousness.
The main ramification of this understanding of living beings is that there is no permanent soul that gets reborn from life to life. Thus, although Buddhism believes in reincarnation, it does not hold that any "thing" gets reincarnated. This leads to a conundrum that Buddhist monks have been discussing and debating for millennia, namely, to what does karma apply if nothing continues from one life to another? There is no clear answer for this question and the main reason is that the Buddha refused to supply one. He believed that his job was to tell people how to make the journey (to nirvana), not to describe the details of the sights along the way.
So what are we to make of this? On the one hand, the Buddha clearly knew his previous lives (indeed all arhats reach a stage of meditation where they can know their previous lives). This implies that there is some part of a person that continues from life to life. On the other hand, Buddhism clearly denies the existence of a soul. In fact, one of the ultimate realizations when a meditator nears nirvana is the understanding of non-dualism (i.e., that there is no difference between subject and object, between knower and that which is known).
The best explanation is a metaphor. One way to light a candle is to bring the flame of a burning candle to the wick. Once the two candles are burning, what is the relationship between the flame of the first and the flame of the second? They are not the same flame, yet one flame caused the other. It is the same with life, according to Buddhism. The karma of one life causes the next life, yet they are not the same life.
The second additional component of dukkha (suffering) is anitya, which is usually translate as "impermanence." It refers to the notion that everything is changing, nothing remains the same. Thus existence is impermanent, and because impermanence is what leads to suffering, existence is suffering.
More on the Solution: Enlightenment
One reason for all this suffering is ignorance, namely, ignorance of the true nature of reality. The answer to ignorance of course is wisdom. And true and completeprajna comes at enlightenment. The Buddhist word for enlightenment is "bodhi," which is the basis for the title "Buddha." He was the first to be enlightened and thus was called "The Buddha." The root meaning of bodhi is "to awaken"; thus the Buddha is the "Awakened One." The rest of humanity is asleep.
Enlightenment comes essentially one step before nirvana. It is the realizing of the true nature of the cosmos, the link between samsara and nirvana, and so on. It is at this point that one can view their past lives.
Theravada Cosmic Views
What has been described above are the earliest views of the buddhist cosmos and the human problem it creates. Theravada Buddhism continues these views in a fairly faithful manner. Mahayana Buddhism and succeeding forms of Buddhism add to this picture and change it in certain ways. To learn more, continue reading.
Mahayana: Same Problem, Different Solution
Mahayana Buddhism agrees with Theravada Buddhism that the human problem is suffering; it holds the Four Noble Truths as fundamental. But whereas Theravada holds out the ideal of the individual striving alone on the Eight-fold Path towards nirvana, Mahayana adds helpers who provide shortcuts and assistance out of compassion for those who are suffering. These helpers are called bodhisattvas, and are beings who have worked towards enlightenment and nirvana. But rather than enter nirvana, once they are able, they turn around and bring their store of wisdom, power and merit to help others along the same path. This simple idea has a number of ramifications for the goal of humanity.
The Mahayana Cosmos and the Nature of Buddha
Bodhisattvas can exist in two different planes, the earthly plane and "Buddha-fields." When people start on the path towards enlightenment, they are obviously in this world--the world of samsara. But once they attain enlightenment (and there are six stages known as paramitas on the way to nirvana), they pass out of samsara's bonds. But since they do not enter nirvana but remain to help others, they remain in the Buddha-fields "between" samsara and nirvana. The Buddha-fields are described in geographical terms; for example, Amitabha's Pure Land is in the west. And even though most lay people envision them in geographical terms, the monks and others who striving the path towards enlightenment see the symbolic character of this description.
The Buddha-fields contain an uncountable number of bodhisattvas and buddhas. For just as people rise to become bodhisattvas, bodhisattvas continue striving until they reach the final stage which is buddha-hood--the ultimate understanding of one's own buddha nature. There are thus many bodhisattvas and buddhas in the Buddha-fields that people can call upon. Here are three:
- Avalokiteshvara is an important bodhisattva who appears throughout the Mahayana world. He is the Bodhisattva of Compassion and as such symbolizes that aspect of Buddhahood (in comparison to the other key aspect of wisdom). He plays numerous roles. In folk belief, Avalokiteshvara protects people from natural disasters and blesses children. In Pure Land Buddhism, he sits at Amitabha Buddha's right hand as his helper. In China, he is known as Kuan Yin and often appears in female form. There she/he is widely popular as the protector of children and childbirth. Chinese Buddhism actually celebrates three annual festivals commemorating aspects of Kuan Yin's life. In Vajrayana in Tibet, Avalokiteshvara is known as Chenrezig, who is the founding father of the Tibetan people. He is believed to be reincarnated as the Dalai Lama. (For more information on the Dalai Lama, go here. For a picture of Chenrezig, go here.)
- The Bodhisattva of Wisdom is known as Manjushri. He is usually depicted with the Sword of Wisdom and the Prajna-Paramita Sutra. Certain great Tibetan scholars have been considered his incarnation.
- Amitabha Buddha, who established the Pure Land, is another important figure who began as a dedicated monk, became a bodhisattva and finally a buddha.
Mahayana introduces one more complication to this scheme, the nature of The Buddha himself. Mahayana envisions him as having three bodies, one in each of three realms of being. The first two realms we have already discussed, the realm of samsara and the realm of the Buddha-fields. The third is ultimate reality itself.
The Buddha's first body, his Dharma Body, corresponds to Ultimate Reality. That is, Buddha IS Ultimate Reality. Everything that is real and which truly exists is Buddha. There is no dualism. In the final analysis, then, there is nothing other than Buddha; all is unity, all is one thing. The Buddha's second body is called his Bliss Body. This is the form that the buddhas and the bodhisattvas take in the Buddha-field; those who have realized their true Buddha-nature is in essence a representation of Buddha. The Buddha's third body is that taken by the buddhas and the bodhisattvas when they enter the earthly realm. It is called the Transformation Body.
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism focuses on one aspect of the Mahayana cosmos and emphasizes its importance. Since the Buddha-fields are a "place" that is outside of samsara, even though it is not yet nirvana, it provides an opportunity for bodhisattva compassion to be expressed. In Theravada Buddhism, there is little opportunity for or expectation that the laity can get beyond the suffering of samsara and reach nirvana. The best they can hope for is to be born in the next life "as a monk" who can attain nirvana. Pure Land provides the laity with another option.
The Buddha Amitabha has created with his store of merit a "Pure Land" (a paradise) which is in the "Western" part of the Buddha-fields. Anyone who calls on Amitabha (=Amida) using the formula of the Nembutsu can enter this land upon death. Thus escape from samsara and suffering is available to the laity without extensive years of monkish discipline and meditation. Anyone who enters the Pure Land may stay there forever, or may return to human form in an advantageous birth that will enable them to reach nirvana within a lifetime. (For a site in praise of Amitabha, go here.)
Zen Buddhism
Zen Buddhism focuses on a completely different aspect of the Mahayana cosmos, namely, the idea that everyone has a buddha-nature which is part of the Ultimate Reality of Buddha. Zen rejects all other aspects of Mahayana--the bodhisattvas, the other buddhas, the sacred texts--and teaches its followers to concentrate and meditate on reaching the true understanding of their buddha-nature.
Vajrayana Buddhism
Vajrayana largely takes over Mahayana's understanding of the cosmos, and its definition of the human problem. It differs primarily in its depiction of Cosmic Unity as the union of a duality, in the additional figures with which it populates the cosmos, and in its solution to the human problem.
Vajrayana emphasizes the nature of Mahayana's notion of the Buddha's Dharma Body, that the Buddha is Ultimate Reality. As Nagarjuna put it, samsara and nirvana are one and the same. Thus, Ultimate Reality is the union of samsara and nirvana; at once diametric opposites and the same thing. Drawing upon the tantric writings, Vajrayana often represents this notion of opposites as male and female. The union of these opposites is thus depicted in sexual intercourse. Human sexuality therefore becomes both a metaphor and a representation of the cosmos.
To represent this union, called yab-yum, buddhas and bodhisattvas have both male and female aspects--similar to the way Hinduism depicted Parvati as Shiva's female aspect. For example, the male bodhisattva Chenrezig has a female form called Tara who embodies the female aspects of compassion. Furthermore, both male and female bodhisattvas have two forms, peaceful and wrathful. Chenrezig's wrathful form is Mahakala, which protects his worshippers and meditators from harm by demons.
These two changes that Vajrayana emphasizes bring about further change in its solution to the human problem. While Vajrayana keeps the notion of bodhisattvas and compassion, it adds to it in important ways. Vajrayana is called the "Diamond Vehicle" to enlightenment because the hardness of the diamond suggests the enlightenment can be attained in a single lifetime. The way is hard, but with the proper help and practices it can be achieved. The first change is that Vajrayana monks work closely with a guru (a teacher) who guides them at every step of the path until they themselves become adept. The first thing the guru does with each novice is to connect him to a yidam, that is, a personal deity (usually a bodhisattva) with whom the novice will establish a life-long link and who will help guide and support the monk as he works towards enlightenment. Tara is often used as a yidam.
Another aspect of the "Diamond Vehicle's" solution to the human problem is the idea that to progress quickly towards enlightenment, the entire body needs to be used. Thus meditation is done with sound (mantras), with vision (mandalas), with hand gestures (mudras) and body positions. The adept may also use certain aspects of sexual practice, in imitation of cosmic unity, to enhance their wisdom and power.
- Amitabha Buddha*
- The name of the bodhisattva who established the Pure Land form of Buddhism. The power he gained from his merit as a bodhisattva enabled him to establish the Pure Land and now allows him to help others enter the Pure Land. The laity in particular can now enter the Pure Land with Amitabha's help, they do not have to get there on their own power. All they need do is to chant and believe the Amida Butsu.
- Amida Butsu
- In Japanese, the term by which devotees call on Amitabha Buddha. They usually say "Praise to the Buddha Amitabha," i.e., "Namu Amida Butsa," which can be shortened to "Nembutsu."
- anatman/anatta *
- The Buddhist notion that there is no eternal soul, unlike in Hinduism. Instead, each living person is an association of five skandas, which fly apart at death. Linguistically, "atta" is Pali for "atman" while "an" is the negative. The term literally means "no soul."
- arhat/arhant/arahat/arahant *
- A term used primarily in Theravada Buddhism to signify a person who has fulfilled its ultimate goal, the attainment of nirvana. Upon death, the arhat will become extinguished. The arhat, as an individual, has attained full enlightenment, peace and freedom. This should be contrasted to Mahayana Buddhism, in which the ultimate goal is to become a bodhisattva--someone who uses the power they gain from enlightenment to help others.
- Asura *
- This term is often translated as "ogre" or "titan." They are one of the six states of existence that are in samsara. Different types of Buddhism view them differently. Asura is usually seen as positive, resulting from good karma like human beings and gods. In this interpretation, they dwell in the lower heavens. Other views treat the asuras as resulting from bad karma and hence they are seen as the enemies of the gods. Some types of Buddhism ignore this category altogether and have only five states of existence.
- Avalokiteshvara
- Popularly known as the Bodhisattva of Compassion. He has reincarnated in this world numerous times (in both male and female forms) and therefore plays many roles depending on which strand of Buddhism one follows. First, in Mahayana Buddhism, he is considered to be the manifestation of Amitabha Buddha, the founder of the Pure Land school of Buddhism, and is often represented at Amitabha's right hand. As such he is available to help all in dire need. Second, in China, she appears as Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Compassion. In folk belief, she keeps people safe from natural catastrophe. Third, in Tibet, he appears in several forms. The most important of these are as Chenrezig (the male partner of the couple who gave birth to the Tibetan people), Tara, and as the Dalai Lama.
- Awakening
- A Zen term for enlightenment.
B
- bhikkhu, bikkhuni
- A Buddhist monk, a Buddhist nun.
- bodhi*
- See Enlightenment.
- Bodhisattva*
- In Mahayana Buddhism, a person who has achieved enlightenment, but has who has chosen to remain in this world to help those who are suffering, instead of going on to nirvana. This is the highest ideal. Kuan Yin is an important Chinese bodhisattva; her full name means "Hearing World's Cries Bodhisattva."Amitabha Buddha is an important Bohisattva in the Mahayana form of Buddhism called Pure Land. The idea of the bodhisattva should be contrasted to thearhat of Theravada Buddhism.
- Buddha *
- (1) The Buddha is Siddartha who was the founder of Buddhism. He was the first to attain enlightenment, and then taught others how to attain it. His first name is Siddartha, his family name was Gautama. He was a member of the Shakya clan, and hence is called Shakyamuni, "the wise one of the Shakyas." He is also known as Tathagata, "the Enlightened One." (2) Mahayana Buddhism holds that there are five Buddhas who have/will manifest themselves in the earthly realm. The fifth Buddha, who will come in the future, is known as Maitreya. (3) In Mahayana, a buddha is someone who has attained enlightenment.
- Buddha-fields *
- The Buddha-fields are the infinite number of paradises which are populated by uncountable Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The Buddha-fields are beyond the realm of samsara. Those within them have reached enlightenment, but have not yet attained nirvana. This is where Amitabha has his Pure Land.
C
- Chan Buddhism
- The Chinese name for Zen Buddhism.
- Chenrezig
- The Tibetan form of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. Chenrezig is viewed as the founding father of the Tibetan people, and has had several manifestations among them. The most famous are King Songtsen Gampo who brought Buddhism to Tibet in the seventh century, and the Dalai Lama. His female aspect is Tara. The mantra associated with him (om mane padme hum) was the first to enter Tibet.
D
- Dalai Lama*
- The bodhisattva who is the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, a.k.a. Chenrezig, the bodhisattva of Compassion. He is a single being who has been reincarnated 14 times as the Dalai Lama. See also lama. The Dalai Lama has always been a combination the chief spiritual leader and the chief political leader of Tibet. The present Dalai Lama lives in exile in Nepal; he remains spiritual leader of his people, even under their oppression by the Chinese government. For further information, click here.
- Dharma/ Dhamma*
- The teachings of the Buddha.
- dhyana
- Another way of spelling jhana.
- dorje
- See Thunderbolt.
- dukkha *
- The Buddhist understanding of the nature of life, especially human life. It is suffering, pain, misery, and death.
E
- Eightfold Path*
- The Noble Eightfold path consists of the eight steps by which a person can achieve Nirvana. This is the path by which one ceases to desire and thereby ceases to suffer (see dukkha). This path leads to a form of meditation which, similar to Raja Yoga in Hinduism, enables a person to reach enlightenment. The eight stages are:
- 1) Right Views.
- 2) Right Intent.
- 3) Right Speech.
- 4) Right Conduct.
- 5) Right livelihood.
- 6) Right effort.
- 7) Right mindfulness.
- 8) Right concentration.To see how the Eightfold Path is described within Theravada Buddhism, click here.
- Emptiness*
- Emptiness is usually the description of Enlightenment. To the western mind, this description is often difficult to comprehend, leading to the idea that it is "nothing," and therefore quite unattractive. Two points will help correct this view. First, "emptiness" can be understood as the Buddhist way of saying that Ultimate Reality is incapable of being described, much the way that many Christian theologians view the Christian God as beyond our human attempts to describe. Second, the "emptiness" should not be thought of an another place. Instead, it is identical to the world or universe humans experience in this life. In this way, it is much like the Hindu notion that this world is simply maya (illusion), which prevents humans from seeing the true unity of the cosmos (which in Hinduism means the identity of Atman and Brahman). Thus emptiness and the phenomena of this world are the same, or as the Heart Sutra says, "Form is emptiness, emptiness is form."
- Enlightenment*
- This is the usual English translation of the Sanskrit word "bodhi," which literally means "awakening." It is achieved by following the Eight-fold path, and therefore constitutes freedom from all desires. Enlightenment gives the person who achieves it the wisdom of perceiving the ultimate reality, which entails the power and the ability to work to change that reality in certain ways--especially to help people in need. For example, Amitabha created the western land--thePure Land--as a heaven for his followers. Enlightenment is often described as emptiness. This is the final step before nirvana. Gaining Enlightenment can be likened to breaking through a wall. At first, only a small hole may be created, through which one can briefly see a small part of the other side. Ultimately, the whole wall may be destroyed and all will be visible.
F
- Factors of Conditioned Rising
- There are twelve factors of conditioned arising: death, birth, craving, ignorance, consciousness, becoming, contact, sensation, the six senses, grasping, the power of formation, and mind and body.
- Five Precepts *
- The minimum set of moral rules for Buddhism, practiced by both the lay people and the monks of the sangha. They forbid (1) theft, (2) improper sexual practices (adultery for lay people, sexual activity of any kind for monks), (3) killing, (4) lying and deceiving, and (5) drinking alcoholic drinks. To see how the Five Precepts are laid out within Theravada Buddhism, click here.
- Four Noble Truths *
- The most basic statement of Buddhist belief:(1) All is suffering (dukkha).(2) Suffering is caused by desire.(3) If one can eliminate desire, they can eliminate suffering.(4) The Noble Eight-fold Path can eliminate desire.To see how the Four Noble Truths are explained within Theravada Buddhism, click here.
G
- Gautama *
- The Buddha's family name, or last name. His first name was Siddhartha.
- Guru *
- A teacher or guide for a novice. This is an important activity in Vajrayana Buddhism.
H
- Heart Sutra *
- One of the central sutras in Mahayana Buddhism. It is particularly important in Zen because of its teaching about emptiness. The key idea of this teaching is: "Form is no other than emptiness, emptiness is no other than form." For an on-line translation of the Heart Sutra, click here.
- Hinayana
- The term literally means "the Little Way." It is a derogatory term put onto Theravada Buddhism by those who follow Mahayana, which means "the Great Way (or vehicle, or raft)."
- Hungry Ghost *
- These ghosts are a state of existence, a type of rebirth. This state stems from negative karma. The ghosts live between the earth and hell. They are called hungry because they have large stomachs and tiny mouths. This is one of the six states of existence.
I
- Impermanence *
- (Sanskrit: anitya, Pali: anicca) This term refers to the Buddhist notion that all things of samsara are impermanent. Once created, they decay and pass away. Although this is particularly true for human illness and death, the idea refers to the nature of all things. It is one of the reasons for suffering and is considered one of the three marks of existence.
J
- Jhana/dhyana
- A jhanais one of the highest levels of awareness that can be reached by the practice of samadhi. There are four jhanas, which together essentially areenlightenment. This is where the monk attains supernormal powers, sees his past lives, and gains wisdom of the true character of reality.
K
- Karma/Kamma *
- For Buddhism, as in Hinduism, this is the moral law of cause and effect. People build up karma (both good and bad) as a result of their actions. This then determines the state of existence to which one is reborn after birth. In Buddhism, the different levels can include hells, humans or animals in this world, or one of several heavens.
- koan *
- A riddle-like puzzle used for teaching in Zen Buddhism. It cannot be solved by reason, but instead forces the student to solve it through a flash of insight. A well-known example is the question, "What is the sound of one hand clapping?" For a collection of koans, click here.
- Kuan Yin
- The Chinese manifestation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. Although originally depicted as male, he gradually became represented as female. She appears to all who need her help, especially those threatened by water, demons, sword or fire. Childless women often turn to her for help.
L
- Laity*
- An English word used to refer to the general members of a religion (in Buddhism, Christianity, etc.) as opposed to religious specialists such as monks or priests. In Buddhism, the opposite of laity is the sangha.
- Lama*
- In Vajrayana, the term for teacher or guru. He is usually the head of a monastery or perhaps several monasteries. Some important lamas are considered to bebodhisattvas, such as the Dalai Lama.
- Lotus Sutra
- The Lotus Sutra is probably the most important text of Mahayana Buddhism. It describes a lecture the Buddha gave and the ideas and thoughts. He discusses all the things that differentiate Mahayana Buddhism from Theravada, such as the idea of a bodhisattva, in particular the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, the merit of the people who venerate the Lotus Sutra, and the key to nirvana and Buddhahood.
M
- Mahakala
- This is the wrathful form of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. He protects from dangers and bad influences that might hinder a monk's approach to enlightenment. Mahakala is seen as the protector of the Dalai Lamas.
- Mahayana Buddhism *
- Mahayana means "The Great Raft" or "The Great Vehicle." It is the largest and most influential of the three main forms of Buddhism (the other two beingTheravada and Vajrayana ). It is practiced in China, Japan and Korea. Vajrayana derived from it and shares many similarities with it. Mahayana emphasizes the idea of the bodhisattva over that of the arhat. The goal of an individual is therefore not to pass out of this world into nirvana, but to attain enlightenment--with the wisdom, understanding and power that goes with it--and then to show compassion by returning to this world to help those in need. Amitabha Buddhadid this to establish Pure Land Buddhism. In comparison to Theravada, Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the help that gods and bodhisattvas can give to people to help them escape samsara. It has elaborate descriptions of how this works and emphasizes prayers and rituals that enable people to seek this help.Zen is another branch of Mahayana Buddhism.
- Maitreya *
- The buddha who is expected to come in the future, known to all schools of Buddhism. He is worshipped as a being who guides those who confess their wrongs, and teachers who become discouraged. He is sometimes depicted as the "Laughing Buddha" with his hands stretched over his head, a smile on his face, and a large, bare stomach. He represents all-encompassing love.
- mandala *
- In general, an art form based on the closed circle, which is the symbol on eternal continuity. In Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana), it is a painting or tapestry based on concentric circles. Within the circles, the Buddha usually appears with other deities, bodhisattvas, and other symbolic imagery. For the monk, a mandala serves as a focus of meditation, and a symbolic representation of the reality of the identity of samsara and nirvana. In popular religion, the mandala is often the focus of worship--or, to put it another way, the Buddhas and deities depicted in a mandala become the object(s) of worship. For further information about mandalas, click here.
- Manjushri
- The Bodhisattva of Wisdom (prajna), one of the two key Mahayana concepts; the other is compassion (represented by Avalokiteshvara). His two main symbols are the sword of knowledge and a book of the Prajna-Paramita Sutra. His wisdom casts away the darkness of ignorance.
- mantra *
- A sound that is used as a focus for mediation or worship. Similar to Hinduism.
- Marks of Existence *
- There are three marks of existence: suffering (dukka), impermanence (anitya), and "no-soul" (anatman). For a fuller discussion of these in Theravada Buddhism, go here
- Merit (punya)*
- Merit is essentially "good Karma." It can be gained in a number of ways. Many of these involve interaction between the sangha and the laity. For example, when a lay person gives a monk food, they gain merit. Acting in a moral manner, teaching the proper belief, preaching, and chanting also gain an individual merit. Worship of the Buddha can also bring merit. The notion of merit plays the largest role in Theravada Buddhism.
- Moon days *
- Every lunar month has four moon days. The most important are the New Moon (which begins the month) and the Full Moon (which is the middle of the month). On these days the sangha gathers to read the rules of monk behavior and each monk examines himself to see if they have violated any of the rules. The other two moon days are halfway in between these two. Thus, there is therefore a moon day every seven days. Members of the laity often gather at the monastery on these days for religious activity.
- mudra *
- Symbolic hand gestures used in ritual or dance. The Buddha is often depicted with his hands in the meditation mudra or in the mudra symbolizing teaching. InVajrayana, the gestures enlarge to involve the entire body, and they enable the gesturer to interact with Tantric deities.
N
- Nagarjuna *
- Nagarjuna was the first Buddhist thinker who attempted to systematize Buddhist belief. He wrote extensive commentaries on the the Prajna-Paramita Sutra. He probably lived during the second century CE. Although he founded a Mahayana school, the Madhyamikas, his systematization was much more important, being used by many Mahayana schools and as being one of the intellectual bases of Vajrayana Buddhism.
- Nembutsu
- In Japanese, the term by which devotees call on Amitabha Buddha. They usually say "Praise to the Buddha Amitabha," i.e., "Namu Amida Butsa," which can be shortened to "Nembutsu."
- nirvana/nibbana *
- It is the cessation of suffering, the liberation from karma, and therefore the passing over into another existence. The best way to think about nirvana is that it is the final goal of Buddhism, and that Enlightenment is the step immediately before it. Thus one becomes aware of the nature of Ultimate Reality in Enlightenment, and then one becomes unified with that reality in nirvana. Thus the Buddha, when he died, passed into Nirvana, having previously attained Enlightenment during his life and sharing it with humanity. A bodhisattva is one who has attained Enlightenment, but rather than passing over into nirvana, chose to come back to this world to use their power to help other people.
O
- Ogre
- A translation of the word asura.
P
- Pali and Pali Canon
- Pali is a dialect of Sanskrit and is thought to be the language the Buddha spoke; it is also the language of Therevada Buddhism. The Pali Canon (of Therevada) is the sacred. Buddhist exts written in this dialect, the Tripitaka.
- paramita
- These are the six virtues, or "perfections," that the bodhisattva perfects during his development. They are: generosity, discipline, patience, energy, meditation (jhana) and wisdom (prajna). The fifth paramita is meditation, or jhana. It refers to the attainment of the four levels of jhana in which non-duality is experienced. The sixth paramita is that of supreme wisdom (prajna).
- prajna
- This term, meaning wisdom, is the supreme wisdom considered by Mahayana Buddhism to be outside human experience and incapable of being conveyed in this-world categories. The key experience of prajna is insight into Emptiness, the true nature of the cosmos. This is usually attained during enlightenment.
- Prajna-Paramita Sutra
- This term refers to a collection of 40 Mahayana sutras which all deal with prajna and its attainment. This was the focus of Nagarjuna's writing and commentaries. The best known of the 40 is the Heart Sutra.
- preta
- The Sanskrit word usually translated as hungry ghost, one of the six states of existence.
- puja *
- A act of worship or devotion to a buddha or a bodhisattva.
- punya *
- Merit. An act that gains good karma..
- Pure Land Buddhism *
- The form of Buddhism focuses on the Buddha Amitabha and the "Pure Land" he created. Appearing in China in the fourth century c.e. and later in Japan, Korea and other nations, this form of Buddhism has the largest following of all the different types of Buddhism. Pure Land is aimed at the average person in its recognition that most people cannot achieve enlightenment and so are doomed forever to stay in samsara. So Amitabha set up a "Pure Land" in the "west"--a paradise--to which people can go when they die. To gain entrance, people simply have to call on the power of Amitabha. This is done by uttering a phrase such as "Namu Amidha Butsu," (the Nembutsu) which is Japanese for "Praise to Amitabha Buddha."
Q
R
- Rain Retreat *
- In the earliest centuries of Buddhism, monks were itinerant, wandering for nine months of the year. When the monsoons began, in July, they gathered together for teaching, instruction, meditation and encouragement. Theravada Buddhism, which is in the area of the monsoons, still keeps the rain retreats, even though its monks have long ago ceased to wander.
- Rinpoche
- This is an honorific term applied to lamas in Vajrayana (Tibetan) Buddhism. It literally means "greatly precious" and is given to masters who are highly valued for their spiritual knowledge. A Rinpoche is often believed to be the reincarnation of a lama, guru, or even a bodhisattva or a buddha. For introductions to some Rinpoches, go here.
S
- Sadhana
- A spiritual practice in Vajrayana Buddhism in which the practitioner is guided by a guru. The goal is to work towards identification with one's yidam.
- Sakya, Sakymuni
- The Sakya is the clan into which the Buddha was born. "Sakyamuni" means "wise one of the Sakya," which was a title given to the Buddha.
- Samadhi *
- A form of meditation widely practiced in Theravada Buddhism in which the mind is concentrated on a single object and gradually calmed until only the object is known. The ultimate goal of this meditation is to enter the state of samadhi which is when the distinction between the object and the meditator disappears, which is the realization of non-dualism. This state is a prerequisite to entering the four levels of jhana and enlightenment.
- samgha
- See sangha.
- samsara *
- The continual cycle of death and rebirth. This death and rebirth is of course into this world of suffering and this is viewed in a negative manner.
- sangha/samgha *
- A general term that refers to the monks (Bhikkhus) as a whole.
- Sanskrit
- The spoken language of ancient India, which belongs to the class of the Indo-European languages. It is used both in Hinduism and in some forms of Buddhism..
- Sanzen
- This is the twice-daily meeting between the student and the master in Zen Buddhism to discuss the student's progress in meditation. The main purpose is to determine whether the student has solved their koan. If not, the incorrect answer is rejected, and the master must then spur the student on to find a correct solution.
- Satori
- Zen Buddhism's term for enlightenment.
- Siddhartha *
- The Buddha's given name, or first name. His surname was Gautama.
- Sila/shila
- This term means precept or rule. It usually is used in reference to the Five or Ten Precepts which form the basic guidelines for the sangha's behavior.
- skandhas *
- The five elements of a human which come together at birth and separate at death: body, feelings/senses, perceptions, habits and inclinations, and consciousness. This is linked to the notion of "no-soul."
- States of Existence *
- There are six states of existence (gati). The highest three are the gods, the asuras, and human beings; they result from good karma. The lowest three are animals, hungry ghosts, and demons (hell-dwellers); they result from bad karma. Some forms of Buddhism view the asuras as stemming from bad karma and others ignore them completely, having only five states of existence.
- stupa *
- A shrine in which relics of the Buddha are kept. The center is a raised temple which is usually surrounded by a series of terraces.
- Suffering *
- See dukkha.
- sutra/sutta
- (1) As in Hinduism, a term meaning sacred text. (2) The Sutra Pitaka is one of the three divisions of the tripitaka. It contains the words and teachings of Buddha himself. (3) The Sutras are the foundational texts for Mahayana Buddhism, which differentiate Mahayana from Theravada Buddhism. Two important Sutras are the Heart Sutra and the Lotus Sutra.
T
- Tantrayana
- See Vajrayana.
- Tantrism *
- Tantrism and tantric ideas begin with notions in line with all forms of Buddhism, namely, the idea that Ultimate Reality is a singular Unity. It is not the apparent multiplicity of the present world around us (maya). Tantrism, which is a key component of Vajrayana, then goes beyond these notions to their representation in the symbol of the sexual union between male and female (see yab-yum). This union is a symbol of the identity of the multiple nature of this world (maya), which is represented by the male, with the unity and wisdom of cosmos, represented by the female. In some schools, the symbol of intercourse is reenacted as part of meditation.
- Tara
- A female manifestation in Tibet of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, whose Tibetan form is Chenrezig. She can appear in 21 different forms, which differ in attributes and are known by their color. She appears in both peaceful and wrathful manifestations. The most commonly appearing forms are Green Tara and White Tara. She is often revered as a yidam, guiding Vajrayana monks towards enlightenment. Included in her earthly manifestations are the two consorts of King Songtsen Gampo who brought Buddhism to Tibet in the seventh century, who is himself considered an manifestation of Chenrezig.
- Tathagata
- A term for the Buddha (Siddartha) which means "The Enlightened One."
- Ten Precepts *
- This is the code of monastic discipline for the monks. It consists of the Five Precepts (no stealing, sexual activity, killing, lying, or alcohol) which apply to all Buddhists, and five further restrictions designed specifically for members of the sangha. These are:
- (6) Not to take food from noon to the next morning.
- (7) Not to adorn the body with anything other than the monk's robe.
- (8) Not to participate in or watch public entertainments.
- (9) Not to use high or comfortable beds.
- (10) Not to use money.
- To see how the Ten Precepts are laid out within Theravada Buddhism, click here.
- Theravada Buddhism *
- Literally, "the path of the Elders." Of the three major branches of Buddhism, this was the earliest to crystallize into form. In contrast to Mahayana andVajrayana, Theravada emphasizes the individual over the group, holding that it is the individual who must reach nirvana on their own. Its central virtue is thus wisdom, which is to be achieved by the arhat who attains enlightenment in this life and nirvana upon death. It discourages speculation about the nature of the cosmos, enlightenment, and nirvana, instead focusing on meditation to achieve enlightenment. The main social group is therefore the sangha, the gathered monks and nuns who support and teach each other as each one strives to achieve enlightenment.
- The Three Refuges, also known as The Three Vows or The Three Jewels *
- 1) I take refuge in the Buddha.
- 2) I take refuge in the Dharma.
- 3) I take refuge in the Sangha.
- Thunderbolt *
- The English word often used to translate the Sanskrit word "vajra" (Tibetan, "dorje"), which is key symbol for Vajrayana Buddhism. It means literally "Diamond Thunderbolt." It symbolizes the indestructible character of emptiness, the true nature of all things. Tibetan Buddhists use a crafted metal image of a thunderbolt in their rituals. For a picture of Vajrasattva holding thunderbolts in his hands, click here.
- Titan
- A translation of the term asura.
- tripitaka, also tipitaka.
- The three main sacred scriptures of Buddhism. A "pitaka" is a basket and so the term refers to the "three baskets." The first basket is the teachings of the Buddha. The second is the discipline for the sangha. The third is that of special teachings. For further information about the tripitaka, click here.
U
V
- Vajrayana *
- Since a "vajra" is a diamond, this term means "The Diamond Way." It refers to the third form of Buddhism (after Theravada and Mahayana), which is practiced largely in Tibet. It is also known as Tantric Buddhism. The main claim of Vajrayana is that it enables a person to reach nirvana in a single lifetime. It is able to do this by using all of a person's powers (including those of the body) to achieve that goal.
- Vipassana
- This form of meditation is widely practiced in Theravada Buddhism. Its goal is the realization of the three marks of existence: suffering, impermanence, and "no-soul." It leads to the realization of the true character of Emptiness. Vipassana and Samadhi are considered prerequisites for attaining nirvana by Theravada Buddhism.
W
- Wheel of Life
- (Sanskrit: Bava Chakra) In Tibetan Buddhism especially, the Wheel of Life is a symbol consisting of three concentric circles held by Yama, the God of the Underworld. It signifies samsara. The inner-most circle contains symbols of the three sources of suffering: the pig (ignorance), the snake (hate), and the cock (desire). The next circle is divided into six sections, each depicting one of the six states of being. The outside ring is divided into twelve sections, each representing a symbol of one of the twelve factors of conditioned arising (death, birth, craving, ignorance, consciousness, etc.).
- Wisdom *
- This is the usual translation of prajna.
X
Y
- yab-yum
- In Tibeten Buddhism, or Vajrayana Buddhism, this is the symbol of the male and female sexual union--usually a union of a god or a bodhisattva and his consort--which represents the completeness of the cosmos. The male represents action, usually that of compassion, in this finite world, and the female represents wisdom, the unity of the Infinite. The male is seen as passive and the female as active.
- yidam *
- A bodhisattva or other "deity" assigned to a Vajrayana monk by his guru as his personal guide and protector. Once established, this link will last the monk's lifetime, and will help him work towards attaining enlightenment.
- Zazen *
- In Zen Buddhism, the practice of extended periods of mediation, usually in a group in a meeting hall. The monks sit quietly for long periods of time in the cross-legged Lotus position. While different individuals will be meditating with different goals, often meditation focuses on solving a koan. For more information than you ever wanted to know about zazen, click here.
- Zen Buddhism*
- A branch of Mahayana Buddhism which was brought to China (where it was called Chan) in 520 CE by Bodhidarma and arrived in Japan in the twelfth century. It is probably the most common form of Buddhism in the West. Practitioners of Zen must usually devote themselves to a life as a monk, for it requires extensive periods of meditation. It concentrates on making clear that reality is beyond words and language and beyond logic. To accomplish this, it makes use of the koan, zazen, and sanzen. The word "zen" derives from the Sanskrit term for the concept of jhana.
